l-carnitine boost metabolism and energy metabolism. Abbreviations: CPT, carnitine Carnitine: Genetic Variants Affecting Mitochondrial

ATIs are resistant to heat and digestive enzymes, and upon ingestion, they can activate the TLR4MD2CD14 complex, leading to the infiltration of intestinal macrophages and dendritic cells and the release of mediators like TNF- and IL-1, which induces an inflammatory response that is most pronounced in the colon and decreases progressively through the ileum to the duodenum (177)

In this process, the immune system is activated

doi: 10.1039/D0FO03347B 478 XuPYanFZhaoYChenXSunSWangYet al

Suppression of glutamine transporter SLC1A5 leads to the downregulation of mTORC1 signaling resulting in autophagy-mediated cell death [142, 143]