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Finally, we discuss promising biomarkers derived from microbial, inflammatory, and erythrocyte pathways that may facilitate early diagnosis and the development of diseasemodifying therapies

In 2017, worldwide antibiotic consumption reached 93 million tons (Tiseo et al., 2020), and projections indicate that this figure could exceed 236 million tons by 2030, with aquaculture contributing approximately 5.7% of that total (Schar et al., 2020)

Reduced plasma levels of vitamins A, E and -carotene, coupled with decreased antioxidant enzyme activity in the intestinal mucosa, correlate with IBD severity and may serve as indicators of disease activity (69)

However, upon administration of ATP, these activities returned to levels comparable to those observed in the healthy control group